This campus-wide retention model was designed to provide administrators with a strategy and framework to build a student retention plan that incorporates the individual needs of their students and institution. It was designed with the hope that this model will allow ad-ministrators and planners to devote more of their time to planning and management rather than to the uncovering of research to support their actions.

Studies and issues regarding minority student persistence are not new, and many of the practices identified and outlined in this research-based framework have been presented before. Two main differences between this framework and previous efforts include the broad scope of coverage across a variety of campus issues and the specific recommenda-tions for institutional practice. The framework provides administrators and practitioners with a menu of activities, policies, and practices to consider during the planning and im-plementation of a comprehensive campus-based retention program. It should be noted that nothing here is completely prescriptive. Readers should remember that it is indeed a “framework” and that the following ideas and strategies are guidelines to begin the design and implementation process on your college campus. In the end, each institution must de-velop its own strategy to be successful, as no one-size-fits-all approach exists. What lies beyond are strategies from the research literature to help in planning and development.

Five Components of the Student Retention Framework (Swail, 1995)

The retention framework is classified into five components based on an extensive review of current literature. Four of the five components—financial aid, recruitment and admissions, academic services, and student services—are generally major departments in most four-year institutions. The fifth component, curriculum and instruction, is receiving more atten-tion and consideration at colleges and was added to this study because of the direct impact it has on student retention. The framework components are further broken down into categories based on areas of specialization and subsequently into specific objectives.

It is important that practitioners understand the relationship between the framework’s components. Most notable is the ability of campus departments to work together toward common goals and focus on students’ needs (Noel, Levitze, and Saluri, 1985; Smith, Lip-pitt, and Sprandel, 1985). From an organizational perspective, it is difficult to imagine how any of the components could work effectively without links to other areas. For instance, financial aid offices work closely with recruitment and admissions offices, while academic services must work in tandem with departmental efforts in curriculum and instruction. The framework attempts to develop additional links, such as those between student services and academic services, where the notion of Tinto’s theory of academic and social integra-tion (1975, 1993) is most relevant. The link of recruitment practices with precollege academic support programs is a good example of how a campus-wide support network can help students persist toward graduation. Thus, interrelation of the five components within the framework should be a major consideration for practitioners and developers.

As shown in the figure above, the research-based framework is supported by a student monitoring system. The system, identified from literature and panel discussion as an important component of a campus-wide retention program, is a resource that supports the linkage of campus components or services. Such a system, when developed to capture data that reflect the true nature of student and faculty life, provides institutions with a snapshot of student experience in terms of academic and social development (Tinto, 1993). It is with this knowledge that campus offices and personnel can generate more ap-propriate methods of supporting students’ needs. To make this system useful, institutions must ask the appropriate questions and be willing to enact systems to collect data that can answer those questions. It can be a huge amount of work, but it is undoubtedly the only way of answering the difficult but important questions that relate to student persis-tence.

From an administrative perspective, the strategies introduced in the model are not pre-scriptive. They are alternatives and institutional practices that are consistent with both current thinking within the various communities and what we have been able to ascertain through the research literature. As well, this framework will be particularly significant in providing an understanding of the various roles that will be expected and required of ad-ministrators, faculty members , and staff members on campus if a program is to be successful.

A Chronological Metric
The model can also be used to represent the cognitive and social growth of students over time. The figure below illustrates the time element, where the triangle represents the pre-sent and the area beyond the triangle represents all prior influences and experiences, as recent as yesterday, as far back as preschool, if necessary. This concept is especially im-portant at the time of college matriculation , for it can provide college administrators, faculty, and staff a snapshot of a student’s cognitive and social attributes at the entry point into college. Given that the triangle sides represent the present, the institution must have a process for identifying the impacts and abilities of the student beyond the triangle, that is, measuring their capabilities based on their progress during the K–12 years. Colleges typi-cally use standardized test scores, GPAs, course transcripts, and even support letters and interviews to gauge a student’s past.

For the institution, the ability to learn about a student’s history is more than about testing and analysis. It is an opportunity to connect with the student and become cognizant of his or her goals and aspirations. With this information, the institution can modify individua l programs to meet specific needs of the student. The entire admissions process allows an institution the opportunity to match its goals with those of the student.

Of course, time does not hold still during the college years. In fact, the college experience represents the coming of age and entrance into adulthood for most traditional-age stu-dents. Therefore, it is important for the institution to note that the student’s goals, aspirations, and abilities change during his or her time on campus and that strategies identified by the student must be matched by subsequent changes on the part of the insti-tution.

As can be seen in the figure, the geometric model can be used to conceptually track a student’s progression through graduation. Remembering that the innermost triangle represents the here and now and that every piece of time that passes moves farther out-ward from the center we can thus layer each progressive period of time as it occurs. From a theoretical point of view, the model has the ability to consider all prior history, including high school and beyond. From a practical point of view, it can help us gather and use in-formation chronologically to chart or track students’ progress before matriculation and during college. This observation is significant, because it gives us a philosophical picture of how students progress and change over time. For an institution, it can provide the neces-sary knowledge and information to gauge institutional practices and alter the individual learning plans associated with each student. For example, on the social side of the model, an institution can and should track the student’s social development, as measured through appropriate inventories administered biannually or annually. Likewise, the academic pro-gression of the student can be measured through credits earned, course grades, and course examinations.

Component One: Financial Aid
Financial aid is a critical part of the persistence puzzle. For students from low-income backgrounds, many of whom are students of color, finances are a make-it or break-it issue. A strong financial aid office is often the sign of a well-oiled campus, where latitude is given to students who have special financial needs.

Four categories were used to describe financial aid. Grants and scholarships, student loans, financial counseling, and assistantships/work-study programs were all identified in the literature and supported by the panel to be important factors in student retention.

Although research has shown that grants are a much better predictor of students’ persis-tence than loans (Astin, 1982; U.S. General Accounting Office, 1995), the finite limitations on the availability of grants and scholarships suggest that loans and work-study options must remain open avenues for students to gain access to the nation’s postsecondary insti-tutions. Princeton, Stanford, and a host of other Ivy League campuses have made news in recent years by making large commitments to need-based aid, but the reality outside of a handful of institutions in our entire postsecondary system suggests that colleges must de-velop increasingly creative and alternative ways to increase institutional aid for needy students, especially at moderately priced private institutions.

Although some ethnic groups historically are averse to financial debt (Thomas, 1986), loans are nonetheless a standard component of most financial aid packages. Institutions must consistently review their packaging procedures and ensure that students and fami-lies are educated about the loan process and that the loan represents a long-term investment against future returns. The delivery of accurate and easy-to-follow information regarding loan availability and regulations is an important factor for families.

A major barrier to access and persistence is the lack of information for parents and stu-dents regarding grants, loans, and scholarship opportunities. Colleges must be proactive in advising families of the price of college, selection criteria, and availability of financial aid opportunities. The application process must also be designed such that it does not deter families from applying for financial aid (Astin, 1982; Collison, 1988). In the late 1990s, the U.S. Department of Education conducted focus groups and video profiles of parents and families completing the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) form, which must be completed by all students applying for federal aid in the United States. The department found that most families, from all income levels, had trouble completing the form. Al-though the Student Financial Aid office within the U.S. Department of Education has made strides in this area, the financial aid process is still a maze and deterrent for many fami-lies.

One other area for consideration is the availability of emergency loans and grants for stu-dents who occasionally require additional financial support midway through a semester as a result of unanticipated costs associated with books, health care, and travel. The availabil-ity of quick turnaround funds for students can help students focus on their studies and persist through the semester.

Assistantships and work-study programs can be an important part of a student’s college education, especially for science majors. Astin (1975), for example, found that work-study programs could increase student persistence by 15 percent. These opportunities provide students with money, experience in the field, and, perhaps most important, networking
capabilities for future employment and research possibilities. Recent research by NCES (Horn, 1998), however, supports Astin’s finding a threshold exists where the amount of work per week distracts students from their studies and lowers the chances of a student’s persisting.

Financial counseling is the foundation for grants, loans, and work-study programs. Counsel-ing allows campuses to reach out to families and students and offer a variety of avenues to finance college attendance. College financing is arguably one of the most important and costly endeavors a family may make, and financial aid staff must be cognizant of the burden these decisions place on families and provide excellent support for them during the decision-making process. Additionally, families need information early. Colleges can work with school systems to develop financial aid nights

The financial aid portion of the framework has three major objectives:

Disseminate information. To make informed decisions, appropriate information must get to students and families regarding student financial aid. The use of new technologies to deliver this information, such as computer networks and computer-interactive systems, can help families plan for college and learn more about the college environment and re-quirements. A number of college cost calculators are on the Web, and institutions can link into them. They are useful, however, only if the targeted constituencies use them. Institu-tions must devise efficient and coherent communication paths to interested families in a method that is both informative and supportive. Yet access to these new technologies, es-pecially computers and the Internet, is heavily influenced by family income. Thus, traditional information or access to computer-aided information must also be made avail-able.

Increase availability of need-based aid. Colleges should attempt to revise current lending practices to increase the availability of grants, scholarships, work-study programs, and loans to needy families. Much of the availability is based on federal authority, but institu-tions still make key decisions on institutional and other aid. A case in point is the trend to move toward merit-based aid on campus. Colleges should consider the impact of those decisions and maximize aid to needy students. The revision of current national financial aid policies, although beyond the control of individual colleges, must be watched carefully by college administrators and national collegiate association representatives.

Reconsider aid packaging. Steady increases of tuition and fees require creative packag-ing, especially for students from low-income backgrounds but also for all students. The packaging of federal aid is legislatively controlled, and some private aid, such as the “last dollar” programs, has certain restrictions on how they are packaged with other aid compo-nents. Institutions have more flexibility with their institutional aid, however, and can use it in a variety of ways (for example, merit, supplementary need-based grants). Some research shows that front-loading student aid packages (that is, coordinating financial disbursement so that students receive more money during the freshman year and diminished amounts in subsequent years) results in a more efficient use of loan money (U.S. Government Account-ing Office, 1995) and can help students get over the hump of their college experience. Many financial aid practitioners are wary of that practice, however, and would rather use it in other ways.

Component Two: Recruitment and Admissions
The development of enrollment management programs in recent years has empowered the recruitment and admissions staff on many campuses. From an institutional perspec-tive, how an institution “chooses” its prospective students and what financial aid it offers is the crux of institutional business. Institutions must be cognizant of the issue of institution-student fit, and at some point the business side must regress to allow for the personal side of the college connection. Ultimately, college is a service industry, and the student is the client.

The three categories under the classification of recruitment and admissions include student identification, admissions, and orientation. Tinto (1993) and other researchers (Astin, 1975;
Cope and Hannah, 1975) discuss the importance of matching students’ goals and expectations
to a college’s mission. The role of the recruitment and admissions offices must be clarified, first,
to identify students whose career and educational goals are closely matched to the institutional mission and, second, to admit only those students to college.

Focus areas under this category include the recruitment of students who have been involved in precollege preparatory programs, promotional visits to local secondary schools, the development of outreach programs in the institution’s target area, and the use and promotion of alumni clubs to recruit students.

Although traditional admissions practice incorporates some level of student assessment to verify institutional fit, the process is not as sophisticated as it could be. Colleges should use a number
of assessment and evaluation practices in the admissions office to deter-mine the extent of student-institution congruence. Although the majority of four-year colleges widely use SATs and other norm-referenced tests for gatekeeping, they are by no means the only measures of students’ ability or aptitude. Even the College Board strongly advises that the SAT should be used only in conjunction with other measures, such as GPA, class rank, and other noncognitive measures, including essays and interviews. Additionally, colleges should consider that the admissions process is also an opportunity to accept the reciprocal responsibility of ensuring that the institution fits the student. The admissions process is primarily about service to students, not gatekeeping, even though gatekeeping is a definitive role in the admissions process.

Finally, the campus orientation aspect of this component is an important part of student integration on campus, both socially and academically. Orientation should look beyond the student and offer opportunities to families and significant others, as the college experience is truly an experience for the entire family and not just the person in attendance. The Lubin House experience at Syracuse University (Elam, 1989) remains an exemplary model of satellite orientation practice that other colleges should study carefully. Additionally, on-site orientation and extensive communications
with families should become standard practice for any college

The recruitment and admissions segment of the framework has five major objectives:

Precollege programs. To ensure the efficiency of campus offices related to student recruitment, coordinators should capitalize on student data and involvement in precollege programs offered by the institution. Students in these programs generally have already shown college aspirations and academic potential, and have been oriented to the college. Therefore, precollege programs offer institutions an opportunity to recruit and assess stu-dent ability based on previous contact with students and schools.

Alternative assessment methods. Colleges can revise current selection criteria to include a variety of assessment techniques, including portfolios, interviews, and perhaps other nontraditional methods of pre-testing. Although there is concern over the cultural bias of SAT testing (Kalechstein et al., 1981; Dreisbach et al., 1982; Steele, 1999; Jencks and Phil-lips, 1998; Guinier, 2001), most empirical research finds SATs and the academic rigor and selection of high school courses to be the best predictors of student persistence and suc-cess (Sedlacek and Prieto, 1990; Adelman, 1999).

School visitations. The use of work-study students, graduate assistants, and other student personnel to make visits to local high schools (especially their alma maters) in the capacity of recruiter is a cost-effective way of reaching out to the community. This practice is ap-pealing because of the close connection between college students and high school students as opposed to trying to bridge the gap with recruitment personnel. These interac-tions also help generate a peer relationship between the college and high school that may be an important part of a student’s decision to attend college or a particular campus.

On-campus living orientation. Providing high school students enrolled in precollege pro-grams with on-campus experiences, especially living opportunities, can have long-term positive impacts on their aspiration for postsecondary studies. This practice has practical applications for both students and colleges: it gives students opportunities to test the col-lege environment and become more familiar and comfortable with the college, and it allows colleges a much better chance of recruiting students who have had extended visits to the campus.

Freshman orientation. Linking freshman orientation programs with course credit generally increases students’ interest and attention and justifies their importance to students in re-lation to their academic pursuits. Some universities have designed one–, two–, or three–credit hour programs for first-semester students. Although the establishment of mandatory orientation without credit is a standard practice on many campuses, students often resent this use of their time, particularly when orientations are poorly planned and offer students little in terms of increased knowledge regarding university services and regulations or use-ful skills.

Component Three: Academic Services
The academic services component is the most diversified and expansive component in the framework. The focus of academic services in terms of student retention and persistence is on providing supplementary support to students in addition to practice with classroom lectures. This component is divided into six categories: academic advising, supplementary instruction, tutoring and mentoring, research opportunities, precollege programming, and bridging programs.

Effective academic advising is important to laying out an appropriate course map for stu-dents (Forrest, 1982; Beal and Noel, 1980). To be effective, it is important that students receive guidance that reflects their needs and incorporates the knowledge of campus pro-gramming and bureaucratic practices. Prospective advisers need to be trained accordingly to handle a variety of issues during advising sessions.

Many campuses have initiated computer-based advising systems. Although these systems are cost-effective, they do not allow for the development of relationships or the interaction between adviser and student, an important opportunity to talk with the student about his or her progress.

Beal and Noel (1980) also noted the importance of using faculty as student advisers. This practice has many potential benefits in addition to the academic guidance that may be offered, including role modeling and mentoring. Faculty members must be appropriately briefed and trained on the institution’s various issues and policies, however. This practice is not often followed at institutions.

Supplementary instruction programs are prominent on many colleges and university cam-puses. The supplementary instruction program developed at the University of Missouri–Kansas City is perhaps the most widespread program in use. In addition to providing re-medial activities and supplementary support, however, departments must also continue to develop better strategies that increase knowledge acquisition and improve the learning process for all students.

Tutoring and mentoring practices form another support network for students. Colleges must make tutoring support available and affordable to students with such need. Faculty members should also make themselves available for academic assistance. Many re-searchers have substantiated this out-of-classroom contact between students and faculty members as an important factor in student persistence (Ugbah and Williams, 1989; Griffen, 1992), with ramifications for the student’s personal, social, and intellectual devel-opment (Griffen, 1992).

Students in science-based disciplines (social and physical) can benefit greatly from research opportunities. The link between classroom theory and real-world practice has positive implications for a student’s retention of knowledge while also making him or her more marketable after graduation. The development of local business partnerships and encouragement of on-campus research can create excellent opportunities for students.

Precollege programs provide an opportunity for the campus to work actively with elementary and secondary students (Swail and Perna, 2002). The federally funded TRIO programs have provided support to low-income and other students for more than thirty years. As well, partnerships through the federal GEARUP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Un-dergraduate Programs) initiative have heightened awareness and interest among many colleges. Other regional programs such as MESA (Mathematics, Engineering, and Science Achievement) and MSEN (Mathematics and Science Education Network) are examples of how precollege programs can help motivate students toward those areas. Colleges can benefit greatly from the establishment of these and other programs and the ensuing part-nerships with K–12 schools and community organizations.

Bridging programs are an offshoot of precollege programs but are more specific. Colleges can effectively use a high school student’s senior year or summer before matriculation to help further develop and orient the student’s knowledge and ability to meet freshman pro-gram requirements. Study skills, time management, and course-related study are popular content offerings.

The academic services portion of the framework has five major objectives:

Academic advising. Colleges should implement a regular and standard practice of aca-demic advising for students. Students’ attitudes are also directly related to persistence, and a proactive advising system of checks –and balances would require scheduled meet-ings to catch problems before they occur. Such meetings should be face –to face, not moderated by computer.

Diverse instruction. Supplementary instruction programs should use a combination of suc-cessful instructional techniques that support learning preferences of the entire student audience. Online and distance education has helped raise the bar for teaching and learn-ing on campus, and faculty need to be more aware of the interaction of teaching styles and pedagogy with student learning styles (Whimbey and others, 1977[[AUTHOR: no Whimbey and others 1977 in bib ]]; Hyman, 1988).

Bridging programs. Colleges should focus on developing academic bridge programs be-tween senior year in high school and the freshman year in college. On-campus intervention programs afford students a number of potential benefits, including opportunities to be-come acclimated to the campus, work through some freshman problems before the fall semester begins, receive academic support in areas of weakness, and become accus-tomed to the pace associated with college-level academic learning.

Precollege programs. To help develop the pipeline of students interested in attending col-lege, institutions should place considerable resources into the development of precollege programs wherever possible and practical. These programs, provided at levels as early as elementary school, help motivate students, get them thinking about the possibility of col-lege, and provide important academic support and college knowledge to students and their families (Swail, 2000).

Informal faculty-student contact. Colleges should try to promote informal contact between faculty members and students to build trust, support, and motivation during the college experience. Out-of-class contact with a student can create a bond and a sense of self-worth that can positively affect a student’s locus of control and impact future decisions regarding college. Extra assistance on projects, informal discussions on academic subjects, and spe-cial social gatherings can encourage this type of interaction.

Component Four: Curriculum and Instruction
The continued development of curricula and pedagogical practice is perhaps the most im-portant and fundamental need that colleges must address in terms of student retention. The need to revise current practices, especially in gatekeeper courses, stems from what Tobias (1990) acknowledges as the practice of designing courses that are “unapologeti-cally competitive, selective and intimidating, [and] designed to winnow out all but the ‘top tier’” (p. 9).

Of primary importance to academic offices should be the continuous process of curriculum review and revision. This process should in fact become a mainstream component of cur-riculum development. Especially in terms of science, engineering, and mathematics, academic content must reflect the current dynamics of industry practice to be worthwhile and effective. Therefore, to prepare students for employment in science, engineering, and mathematics in the near future, it follows that science, engineering, and mathematics cur-ricula must relate not only to current industry trends and practices but also to anticipated practices and procedures (for example, cutting-edge technology and research). Colleges should attempt to gain access to new equipment and provide instruction that uses state-of-the-art instructional technologies to ensure that materials are presented in a fashion that is commensurate with students’ learning preferences. The communication age has radi-cally altered traditional learning and teaching styles, especially for students currently in elementary and secondary classrooms. Computers are second nature to new students ma-triculating to college or attending precollege programs. Within a few years, virtual reality, a technology embodied as the ultimate in applied scientific and medical training, may also be second nature to undergraduates. Thus, colleges must allocate resources to the devel-opment of new teaching strategies that incorporate the latest in educational and industrial technology. Without these considerations, students may find upon graduation that their knowledge is not aligned with the needs of society, when they should be on the cutting edge.

With the revision of curricular and instructional approaches comes the need for a revision of assessment practices on campus. If new curricular practices focus on a higher level of knowledge and understanding for learners, assessment practices must be able to docu-ment this higher learning. Thus, traditional methods of student evaluation are not appropriate to meet the needs of emerging teaching practice. The incorporation of instru-ments that measure students’ comprehension rather than memorization and use a variety of assessment methods may offer a more accurate picture of student development and comprehension.

Faculty members’ ability to deliver materials in an exciting, interesting, and motivating manner is also essential to the quality of education delivered by an institution. Research has shown that student achievement is higher when smaller classes and groups are used. The hands-on and group collaborative approach made popular by the Emerging Scholars Program at Berkeley (Fullilove and Treisman, 1990) has shown that students, with specific reference to African Americans, are more likely to increase their academic performance than students not involved in these programs. In effect, instructors must begin to employ practices more popularly related to K–12 education to reach students effectively.

If these areas are to become standard practice, faculty must receive appropriate training and support. Faculty development activities, with specific focus on teaching and assess-ment strategies, must become a basic foundation for instructional practice at colleges. The possible implementation or restructuring of faculty reward systems could provide incen-tives for teaching on campus.

The curriculum and instruction portion of the framework has four major objectives:

Instructional practices. Colleges should attempt to use various methods of delivering con-tent to students, focusing on comprehension rather than rote memorization. The use of hands-on, exploratory, and peer learning groups are a few methods of motivating students to learn. A good balance is the use of a variety of instructional methods rather than one dominant method.

Curricular review. Colleges should develop an integrated process of curriculum review to ensure that all pieces of the curriculum are up –to date and relevant to society’s needs. At many universities, individual faculty members are left in isolation to decide what to include in a course syllabus, leaving much to be desired in terms of quality control. This issue is of great relevance, considering that most faculty have little or no background in learning the-ory or educational practice. Therefore, a systemic and cyclical review process that allows for faculty to review all curricula on a rotating basis helps control the content delivered in classes. It also serves to keep curricula current.

Professional development. Colleges need to provide extensive and ongoing professional development to faculty and staff to incorporate new teaching strategies and assessment techniques. Faculty cannot be expected to teach specific, if not more standard, courses without opportunities to share and learn from others with different experiences. If colleges and universities are serious about teaching as a focus of their mission, then it is incumbent upon them to provide support for their instructional staff.

Assessment. Campuses should design and implement new multifaceted assessment tech-niques that regard the integrity of human learning and understanding. Teaching and learning practices that require students to evaluate, synthesize, analyze, and create also require new methods of assessing students’ progress (Ryan and Kuh, 1993; Bird, 1990).

Component Five: Student Services
As Tinto (1993) and others have suggested, students’ “social integration” with the institu-tion is an important factor in their ability to persist. The role of the student services office has evolved to deal with many of the issues facing students on campus. The atmosphere and climate of the university, reflected by how the institution treats and supports students and by the positive nature of peer relations on campus, is important to the self-esteem and confidence a student generates. Neisler (1992) concluded that personal, emotional, and family problems, in addition to feelings of isolation and adjustment to college life, are strong barriers to retention for African American students. Therefore, the campus must fo-cus on developing an atmosphere that is supportive, safe, and pluralistic. The outcomes of this study found that campus climate, accessibility to campus, campus housing, and ca-reer and personal counseling are areas that should be considered in terms of their effect on student retention.

Campus climate is not some intangible, abstract concept that just happens. More accu-rately stated, campus climate is the development of the beliefs and practices of the administration, faculty, staff, and students belonging to that institution. Therefore, it can be created and, to some degree, controlled. To develop a positive campus climate suppor-tive of learning and human development, campuses should promote diversity on campus and extol the virtues of shared culture (Justiz, 1994). This practice allows colleges and uni-versities to better reflect the changes in society and promote pluralism. Ensuring safety for students and providing social opportunities for students to forge new friendships and build trust with their fellow classmates are examples. The existence of student groups and or-ganizations can also support a positive climate by integrating students into the campus environment.

Accessibility to campus is also an important concept for institutions to consider. Adminis-trators must consider the use of flexible scheduling to allow students with different schedules to be able to enroll in classes required for graduation. Classes on weekends and evenings and online courses are alternatives. An additional consideration is the access of public transportation systems to campus. Students who have difficulty reaching the cam-pus are less likely to persist, although the use of distance learning technologies may help alleviate these problems.

On-campus housing that integrates students with the campus is an important element di-rectly related to students’ persistence (Pascarella, 1984; Chickering, 1974; Astin, 1977; Pantages and Creedon, 1978). Colleges must ensure, however, that housing is accessible and affordable for students and offer choices in types of housing. Poor housing options can be a major deterrent to persistence.

Studies of the effects of counseling for at-risk (Steinmiller and Steinmiller, 1991), African American (Trippi and Cheatham, 1989), and first-generation students (Richardson and Skinner, 1992) confirm that counseling services are important components of student re-tention programs. Colleges must deal with the added stress and burden that today’s students bring with them to campus. Counseling services must provide support for stu-dents in terms of social needs and career counseling and be accessible to students

The student services portion of the framework has five major objectives:

Diversity and multiculturalism. Colleges can build a pluralistic environment by promoting diversity and multiculturalism through special programming and activities. Studies by Astin (1993a) and Justiz (1994) found that campuses embracing diversity and multiculturalism attracted student populations that were very positive, capable of change, and academically skilled.

Flexible scheduling. Allowing the scheduling of classes in a variety of time slots allows a broader constituency of students to attend classes. Many universities have fixed schedules that allow little flexibility in course selection. Although inflexibility is mostly because of budgetary reasons, there are instances when it occurs because faculty are too inflexible to try different schedules. Adding Saturday courses or moving courses around the schedule may allow students to enroll in more of the classes they need during a semester rather than wait for a rotation when they have no conflict. The targeted use of distance education can also provide flexibility in scheduling.

Career counseling. Colleges must ensure that students are sent on an academic track that will direct them toward their career destination. Occasionally, students are advised to take certain courses that in reality are poor choices and may extend their attendance. Career and academic counselors must be well versed in the requirements, schedules, and policies regarding graduation and have a keen knowledge of what business and industry are look-ing for. This aim can be accomplished only through qualified counselors’ expansive knowledge of individual students.

Faculty-student interaction. Informal contact between faculty members and students is part of a rich atmosphere of sharing and caring at college campuses. Students feel much more relaxed and cared for when faculty are committed to their success. As stated, the social integration of students is paramount to their persistence, enjoyment, and achieve-ment in college. The willingness and acceptance of staff to rub shoulders with students beyond the confines of the classroom can have long-lasting effects.

Room and board. Comfortable housing and affordable meals are important considerations for students. Campuses should look at numerous plans allowing students to choose the type of housing that best meets their financial ability and living requirements. This decision impacts mature students with families, economically disadvantaged students, and stu-dents living far from home.

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