Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the tool box: Academic intensity, attendance
patterns, and bachelor’s degree attainment. Washington, DC: Office of
Education Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education.

This study, based on the High School and Beyond/Sophomore longitudinal database, uses both linear and logistic regression to explore the power of twenty-four variables in explaining long-term (eleven-year) bachelor’s degree completion for students who attended a four-year college at any time during that period. Adelman identifies academic resources—intensity and quality of a secondary education—and continuous college enrollment as powerful predictors of degree attainment, which the author identifies as the bottom line of all postsecondary retention and persistence discussions. The comprehensive analyses of college retention literature and of an integrated national data set produced significant results for college retention policy. Adelman concludes that the true challenge of degree attainment for the higher education community requires remedying its ailing pipeline at the elementary and secondary levels.

Biel, C., Resien, C. A., Zea, M. C. (1999). A longitudinal study of the effects of
academic and social integration and commitment on retention. NASPA
Journal, 37(1), 376–385.

The researchers explored the effects of academic and social integration and commitment on the persistence of first-year undergraduates at a midsize university. Empirical analysis indicated that first-semester commitment mediated the effect of early academic and social integration on persistence over time. Students’ level of commitment rather than academic and social integration has a direct impact on retention. Results support the premise that early institutional adjustment is central to influencing long-term retention.

Bennet, C., and Okinaka, A. M. (1990). Factors related to persistence among Asian,
black, Hispanic, and white undergraduates at a predominately white
university: Comparisons between first and fourth year cohorts. Urban Review, 23, 33–60.

Bennett and Okinaka examined the attrition of minority and nonminority college students at Indiana University. The researchers used a revised model of black student attrition to focus on student campus life. Study findings showed white and Hispanic students who complete college are more satisfied and less alienated than African American and Asian American students who graduate. Persistence and satisfaction with campus life appear to be separate issues for African Americans and Asian Americans, however, as African Americans and Asian Americans who persisted to their fourth year of college appeared more dissatisfied with campus life than those who left the institution. These findings suggest some ethnic students who persist in college experience more trauma over time than those who drop out.

Gladieux, L. E., & Swail, W. S. (2000). Beyond access: Improving the odds of
college success. Phi Delta Kappan, 8(9), 688-692.

Gladieux and Swail, formerly with the College Board’s policy analysis unit, briefly describe the preparation, access, and completion rates of students of various economic and racial backgrounds. They follow with a discussion of why we have not done better in opening the doors of higher education and, more important, why we have not been able to improve retention and completion rates at the postsecondary level. In the end, the authors find that improving opportunities for poor and minority students is a shared responsibility of higher education and the public sector and warn that, regardless of public policy, the solution requires hands-on, one-on-one interventions.

Gonzalez, K. P. (2002). Campus culture and the experiences of Chicano students in
predominantly white colleges and universities. Urban Education, 37(2), 193-
218.

Gonzalez explored campus culture of a predominantly white metropolitan university in the Southwest to determine whether the community supported or hindered Chicano students’ persistence. After observing two Chicano males for a two-year period, the researcher interpreted the study findings using three asymmetrical systems of representation: social world, physical world, and epistemological world. Research findings indicate that the two students studied felt this particular institution marginalized their culture by not completely accepting their bilingual communication styles, dress, and music, and through the absence of physical representations of their culture. In addition, the students felt the institution failed to incorporate Mexican American history and culture into educational programs. In contrast, the two students seemed to appreciate and even expand the relationships with their families and communities. Ethnic and cultural campus organizations, including Chicano faculty, Chicano literature and studies, and physical symbols, provided these students with a sense of community and pride.

Hall, C. (1999). African American college students at a predominantly white
institution: Patterns of success. Paper prepared for an annual meeting of the
Association for Institutional Research, May 30–June 2, Seattle, WA.

The study examined the interactions between students, the institution, and the external environment of successful African American students enrolled at an urban Catholic commuter university. The study used a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methodologies to determine how students perceived campus climate, environmental factors impeding and contributing to success, the effect of students’ perceptions and expectations of the university on their experiences and knowledge, and the actions these students take to succeed academically. Research findings suggest there are more quantifiable differences between white college students and African American students who persist than between African Americans who persist and those who do not, which supports previous findings that institutional climate and other noncognitive factors are more important determinants of the academic success of African Americans than whites. Qualitative data suggest that the availability of ethnic and cultural organizations and a “critical mass” of African American students helped reduce the isolation and alienation often found on predominantly white campuses. African American coping strategies include high self-esteem, high aspirations, parental support and expectations, on-campus support (African American mentors), and involvement in cultural and ethnic organizations.

Himelhoch, C. R., Nichols, A., and others. (1997). A comparative study of the factors
which predict persistence for African American students at historically black
institutions and predominantly white institutions. Paper prepared for an
annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education,
November 6–9, Albuquerque, NM.

The researchers tested Bean’s synthetic retention model (1982) as an accurate predictor of African American student persistence. Regression analyses of a stratified sample of the cooperative institutional research program data set for a cohort of 1986 entering freshmen and 1990 follow-up showed faculty mentoring as a predictor of African American persistence at both four-year HBCUs and predominantly white institutions. In contrast, data showed changing majors and careers as a predictor of African Americans persistence at HBCUs only. Implications for policy suggest heightening faculty-student mentoring programs at both institutional types and heightening academic and career counseling at HBCUs to affect student persistence. Further research findings are presented, and study implications are outlined.

Horn, L. J. (1998). Undergraduates who work. A Postsecondary Education Data
Analysis Report using data from the National Postsecondary Student Aid
Study (NPSAS:96). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics,
U.S. Department of Education.

Horn uses data from the 1996 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study to profile undergraduates who were enrolled in postsecondary institutions in the academic year 1995–96. Data analyses show that 50 percent of undergraduates in the research sample reported working to help pay for their education. Working students were employed an average of 25 hours per week, with 20 percent of full-time students also working full time. In addition, students who worked indicated that their class schedules were limited by their work schedules, and about 25 percent reported that work adversely affected their academic performance. A negative effect was found between work and one-year persistence. In addition, the data showed that students who worked a few hours per week were more likely to borrow to pay for their education than those who maintained a rigorous work schedule.

House, J. D. (1998). High school achievement and admissions test scores as
predictors of course performance of Native American and Alaska native
students. Journal of Psychology, 132(6), 680–682.

House examined the predictive relationships between admission test scores, high school achievement, and grades in specific college courses to identify factors that are predictors of Native Americans’ postsecondary achievement. Using the two predictor variables of ACT composite scores and high school class percentile rank, House tracked students’ grades during their first year of college. Data analyses showed significant correlations between ACT and certain courses, including chemistry, introduction to philosophy, introduction to sociology, and introduction to psychology. None of the correlations for mathematics, however, were significant. In addition, significant correlations were found for introduction to geology, introduction to sociology, and rhetoric and composition. Additional research findings are presented.

Just, H. D. (1999). Minority retention in predominantly white universities and
colleges: The importance of creating a good “fit.” (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 439641).

Just examines retention theories and approaches for integrating students of color into predominantly white college environments. Students of color face similar college adjustment difficulties as other students. A hostile campus climate, however, further complicates their ability to integrate and adjust to campus life, ultimately influencing their college persistence. The study suggests that connection to home significantly helps students adjust to college. Just also discusses policy for aggressively recruiting culturally diverse students to create larger communities of diverse student subgroups. Similarly, recruiting minority college personnel will provide role models for students and create an environment that embraces diversity.

Kennedy, P. W., & Sheckley, B. G.(2000). The dynamic nature of student
persistence: Influence of interactions between student attachment, academic
adaptation, and social adaptation. Paper prepared for the annual meeting of
the Association for International Research, May 21-24, Cincinnati, OH.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 445632).

The researchers investigated a series of variables to determine which combination would discriminate persisters from nonpersisters after a year of college. Research findings suggest persistence is related to dynamic interactions that occur over the course of an academic year and involve students’ self-evaluations. These findings are consistent with Tinto’s research, which depicted persisters as students who adapted academically, improved academically over the course of the year, or achieved within their own expectations. In addition, the results support Pascarella and Terenzini’s research findings that students will persist despite their academic predictions if they have successfully integrated into the campus organization. Thus, faculty should provide students with academic feedback to help them gauge academic success within a reasonable contextual framework defined by faculty; moreover, colleges and universities should provide students with continuous experiences for academic and social adaptation.

Martin, D. C., & Arendale, D. R. (1994). Supplemental instruction: Increasing
achievement and retention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The authors describe the supplemental instruction program of the University of Missouri–Kansas City and its program development, specific goals and objectives, student and institutional outcomes, and potential for adaptation by other institutions. The program contains a number of innovative features, including identifying high-risk courses instead of high-risk students, offering assistance to every student in the high-risk courses, using leaders to conduct supplemental instruction in small group sessions, and incorporating student and faculty satisfaction surveys into measurable institutional change. The supplemental instruction program has been certified as an exemplary educational program by the U. S. Department of Education and has received national diffusion network funding.

Mortenson, T. (1998). Freshman-to-sophomore persistence rates by institutional
control, academic selectivity, and degree level, 1983 to 1998. Postsecondary
Education Opportunity, 74.

Mortenson reports on the trends and patterns of freshman-to-sophomore persistence between 1986 and 1998. Analyses of ACT data evidenced an overall decline in persistence rates, yet the results also supported previous study findings that selective private colleges enroll academically prepared high-income students who are more likely to earn degrees and open public institutions serve less academically prepared lower-income students. Although private colleges maintain higher persistence rates than public colleges, the gap is closing. This trend is attributable partly to public four-year colleges’ increased academic selectivity. Enrollment persistence continues to be a challenge once students graduate from high school and enroll in college, yet the deviations for the average persistence rates, regardless of institutional type, indicate some schools are more successful at getting their freshmen to persist to the sophomore year.

Mortenson, T. (1999). Refocusing student financial aid: From grants to loans, from
need to merit, from poor to affluent. Postsecondary Education Opportunity,
82, 1–4.

Mortenson presents a critique of federal, state, and institutional financial aid policies. Over the past two decades, policies have reversed student financial aid’s original purpose of providing low-income citizens with access and equity to higher education. During the 1980s and 1990s, the federal government continued to provide middle- and high-income citizens with access to more student financial aid while restricting the financial aid specifically created to facilitate low-income citizens’ college access and persistence. Mortenson contends the policy decisions were solely based on capitalism and politics and describes the practices as the “plantation economics” of higher education, where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. Likewise, states reduced grant aid and institutions reduced need-based aid in favor of merit-based aid to attract strong academic students who would improve their college rankings. It is evident that educational opportunity is the key to private and social welfare and that society has clearly compromised the public interest by failing to help those in need.

Murdock, T. (1990). Financial aid and persistence: An integrative review of the
literature. NASPA Journal, 27(3), 213–221.

Murdock use meta-analysis to explores the effect of financial aid on student persistence among different student groups and across types of institutions. Data analyses indicated that financial aid was an important factor affecting and promoting persistence among minority groups. In addition, the dollar amount of financial aid had a significant positive effect on persistence. The researcher also found a stronger effect for private institutions than for public ones.

Nagda, B. A., Gregerman, S. R., Jonides, J., von Hippel, W., & Lerner, J. S. (1998).
Undergraduate student-faculty research partnerships affect student retention.
The Review of Higher Education, 22(1), 55–72.

This study assessed the effect of the University of Michigan’s Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program, which brokered intellectual relationships between faculty and first-year students and sophomores as a step in student retention. Based on retention frameworks, which advocate student college integration, the researchers used a participant–control group research design. Research findings indicated partnerships (student-faculty and student-student) are successful in promoting retention of some students. Specifically, the program increased the retention of participating African American students and African American students with lower academic achievement. These findings are consistent with previous research that showed integration is critical to underrepresented minority students at PWIs, specifically African Americans. The effects were less significant for white and Hispanic students. The authors suggest the challenge of integration may be different for Hispanic students than for African American students, particularly as most Hispanic students attending the institution resided out of state and may have experienced deeper feelings of isolation as a result of the absence of immediate family support.

Native American Higher Education Consortium. (2000). Creating role models for
change: A survey. This study surveyed tribal college graduates to assess their
fundamental characteristics.

Descriptive analyses indicate average tribal college graduates are nontraditional female, first-generation Native Americans who receive associate degrees and certificates and remain in the local community upon graduation. Many of these graduates also have dependents under the age of 18. The average graduate majored in more vocational and technical fields such as business, health care, computer technology, education, and human services. Many tribal college graduates are employed in or continue to enroll in postsecondary courses, and some even transition to predominantly white institutions. Because tribal colleges enroll only about 600 students, on average, the classes are small, allowing faculty more time to cultivate and mentor students. Although tribal college graduates clearly earned higher salaries as a result of attaining a postsecondary degree, these graduates still earned much less than the national average of those in similar fields. Approximately 80 percent of tribal college graduates were satisfied with their academic higher educational experiences; however, they were less satisfied with the institutions’ facilities and equipment. Like HBCUs, tribal colleges seem to have a distinct role in the higher education community of successfully providing Native Americans with postsecondary education.

Pavel, D. M., Skinner, R. R., et al. (1999). Native Americans and Alaska
Natives in postsecondary education. Education Statistics Quarterly, 1(1),
67-74.

Statistical analyses compare data of Native Americans involved in postsecondary education with the general population of postsecondary students. The Native American population has significantly increased from about two hundred thirty-seven thousand recorded in 1970 to slightly under two million in 1990. Proportionally, Native Americans make up 0.08 percent of the population. Some of the growth is attributable to the self-identification by individuals as Native Americans. Research indicates that although Native Americans have made substantial gains since the 1970s, they still lag behind the general population in college attendance, persistence, and completion. Native American students are more likely to be first-generation, low-income students; 62 percent of students enrolled depend on student financial aid to pay for college. They are also to receive academic preparation for college than the overall students. The majority of Native Americans attending college, 87 percent, attend two-year and public institutions, compared with 78 percent of all students. The number of Native American females attending college has increased noticeably (52 percent) since 1970. College enrollments are concentrated in areas with high Native American populations, principally western states such as New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Arizona.

Redd, K. E. (2000). Discounting toward disaster: Tuition discounting, college
finances, and enrollments of low-income undergraduates. Indianapolis:, USA
Group Foundation.

To examine the effects of college tuition discounting, Redd compared data from annual institutional student aid surveys of private colleges and universities to with enrollment and Pell Grant data from the U.S. Department of Education. Data analyses indicated that (1) at least one-fourth of the colleges and universities used discounting strategies that resulted in large losses of tuition revenue; (2) institutions with the greatest increases in discount rates raised their spending on institutional grants by $3,375 per undergraduate, but their tuition and fee revenue grew by just $3,069; (3) discounting strategies do not appear to have significantly improved the academic profiles of admitted undergraduates when measured by changes in median admission test scores of entering first-year students; (4) tuition discounting does appear to have helped institutions increase their numbers of low-income undergraduates; and (5) the increased use of tuition discounting does appear to have made it possible for more students from all income levels to enter higher education.

Rodriguez, A. L., Guido-DiBrito, F., and others. (2000). Latina college students:
Issues and challenges for the 21st century. NASPA Journal, 37(3), 511–527.

This article discusses the barriers to Latina participation in higher education, factors contributing to the success of high-achieving Latinas, and strategies for student and academic affairs administrators to promote the success of Latina students. The Latino population remains one of the most underrepresented groups in the higher education system, which can be traced to Latinos’ low socioeconomic status. Barriers facing Latinas in postsecondary education include cultural stereotyping; financial, academic, and social stresses; and institutional marginalization. To support the success of Latinas in higher education, institutions should provide adequate and realistic financial aid that includes more grants and scholarships than loans, offer more academic support to integrate students academically, provide more social and cultural support systems that value the Latina culture, and create a campus that embraces diversity.

St. John, E. P., & Paulsen, M. B. (1996). The nexus between college choice
and persistence. Research in Higher Education, 37(2), 175–220.

Initial college choices are considered an influence on persistence, but the impact of students’ choices has seldom been considered in studying their persistence and student outcomes. According to these researchers, two distinct sets of theories and research have evolved regarding college choice and persistence as a result of considering them as two separate managerial functions in higher education. College choice research often supports marketing and recruitment, while persistence research supports student retention and completion. Using data from the national postsecondary student aid study, this study examined the influence of finance-related reasons for college choice on persistence decisions. Data showed that finance-related choices had direct and indirect influences on college persistence and that market-based monetary measures of financial aid, tuition, housing costs, and other living costs had substantial direct effects on persistence.

Smedley, B. D., Myers, H. F., & Harrell, S. P. (1993). Minority-status stresses and the
college adjustment of ethnic minority freshmen. Journal of Higher Education,
64(4), 434–452.

Nonwhite students attending PWIs are likely to view these campuses as hostile, alienating, socially isolating, and less responsive to their needs and interests. This study confirmed the hypothesis that minority status stress confers an additional risk to the academic adjustment of nonwhite students beyond those normally experienced by white students. The researchers proposed a multidimensional stress-coping model of individual characteristics that moderate or enhance a student’s vulnerability to academic failure, psychological and cultural stresses students encounter during their academic careers, and students’ coping strategies, all important in nonwhite college students’ adjustment and achievement. Chronic strains associated with being a student and life events are important correlates of psychological distress in nonwhite freshmen, and minority status stresses make a substantial additional contribution to this correlation. Research also supported previous findings that regardless of the sources of stress, they are not as important as academic preparation when accounting for present academic achievement.

Stewart, G. L., Russell, R. B., & Wright, D. (1997). The comprehensive role of
student affairs in African American student retention. Journal of College
Admission, 154, 6–11.

The authors contend that student affairs personnel and professionals concerned with the matriculation and retention of minority students must be aware of the need to create an accepting and supportive atmosphere for African American students at PWIs. They discuss developing a supportive campus using a series of concepts and interventions, including precollegiate outreach, orientation, academic advising, tutoring, career planning and placement, financial aid, residential life, and structured student activities.

Strage, A. A. (1999). Social and academic integration and college success: Similarities
and differences as a function of ethnicity and family educational background.
College Student Journal, 33(2), 198–205.

Strage examined college students’ social and academic integration and college persistence to discern similarities and differences among cultural and educational subgroups of the “new” college-going population—more students of color, part-part-timers, and older students. Data analyses of psychosocial survey responses show differences in students’ social and academic integration by cultural subgroups. White and Hispanic students were slightly more confident in their academic abilities and much more socially confident than Asian American students. They felt that they had better rapport with instructors, and they reported more internal locus of control. No significant differences were found between first- and later-generation students for academic and social integration. The relationship between grades and academic and social integration was much weaker than the relationship between achievement and motivation and integration. Academic confidence, leadership, and teacher rapport were positively correlated with persistence for whites. Academic confidence and teacher rapport were predictive of persistence for Asian Americans. Academic confidence and locus of control were significantly correlated with persistence for Hispanics.

Swail, W. S. (2000). Preparing America’s disadvantaged for college: Programs that
increase college opportunity. In Cabrera and S. M. La Nasa (Eds.),
Understanding the college choice of disadvantaged students. New Directions
for Institutional Research, No.107. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This chapter uses selected indicators from the national survey of precollege outreach programs to describe how these programs work within the scheme of public schooling in America. The author describes the importance of education to lifting the minds, spirits, and opportunities of our less-advantaged youth and how early intervention programs can be a primary tool to make it happen. The chapter concludes with four points on how to alter public policy to improve the practice of early outreach efforts.

Swail, W. S., & Perna, L. W. (2002). Pre-college outreach programs: A national
perspective. In W. Tierney and L. Hagedorn (Eds.), Increasing access to
college. Albany: State University of New York Press.

This chapter uses data from the national survey of precollege outreach programs to describe the landscape of programs in operation around the United States. Included in this review are discussions of funding, location, types of interventions, staffing, and size of programs. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of federal and nongovernmental programs to increase access for underrepresented students and concludes with ten viewpoints collected during focus groups with program directors from around the country for improving program services and stability.

Terenzini, P. T., Cabrera, A. F., and others. (2001). Swimming against the tide: The
poor in American higher education. New York: College Entrance
Examination Board.

This report presents profiles of low-income college students and the nature of their collegiate experience. Low-income students are likely to be nonwhite, have parents with high school diplomas or less, come from single-family homes, make decisions to attend college without parental guidance, attend public two-year institutions, and have limited academic resources. Low-income students are equally involved in academics as high-income students but significantly less involved in out-of-class campus activities. Although financial considerations are important to facilitate students’ enrollment and persistence in college, they do not fully explain why low-income students attend and persist in higher education.

Terenzini, P. T., Springer, L., Yaeger, P. M., Pascarella, E. T., & Nora, A. (1996).
First-generation college students: Characteristics, experiences, and cognitive
development. Research in Higher Education, 37(1), 1–22.

This study compares the characteristics and college experiences of first-generation students with those of traditional students to determine any differences between the groups and the educational impacts of the differences to address the increasing numbers enrolling in higher education. The conceptual model posits six sets of constructs defining a causal sequence that begins when students enter college with an array of academic resources. The precollege characteristics are presumed to influence students’ course-taking patterns, formal classroom experiences, and out-of-class experiences during college, which ultimately influence educational outcomes. The researchers used first-year student data collected as part of a three-year longitudinal national survey of precollege characteristics, a cognitive assessment instrument, and a college experience questionnaire. Research findings of precollege characteristics showed first-generation students were more likely to come from low-income families, to be Hispanic, to have weaker cognitive skills (reading, math, and critical thinking), to have lower degree aspirations, and to have been less involved with peers and teachers while in high school. Research findings also indicated that hours spent studying positively impacted first-generation students’ gains in reading skills during their first year, which suggests a need to increase these students’ study time, possibly through study groups, peer tutoring, and financial assistance to reduce students’ off-campus work hours.

Thayer, P. B. (2000). Retaining first-generation and low-income students.
Opportunity Outlook, 2-8.

Based on theoretical models of retention, Thayer presents critical analyses of the characteristics of first-generation and low-income students, their challenges to higher education, and programming that supports their postsecondary participation. Thayer offers a dual strategic approach for facilitating the attainment of a college degree, which consists of admissions selection and student support components. His discussion of student support services centers on integrating students into the academic and social structures of institutions. Thayer expects these strategies to provide increased higher education opportunities for low-income and first-generation students. Although the recommended strategies are targeted to at-risk students, they are applicable to all college student populations.

Tinto, V. (1975). Dropouts from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent
research. A Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89–125.

Tinto’s landmark theoretical model provides the framework for numerous college student retention studies. It posits that student-institution fit shapes students’ goal commitment and commitment to the institution, which ultimately influences student persistence. The model explores the multifaceted functioning of interactions between the student and the college academic and social systems on student persistence. Although the model failed to address in detail the effect of external campus factors, such as finances, family obligations, and external peer groups on students’ persistence, it has remained the foundation of student retention studies and practice for more than twenty-five years.

Volle, K., and Federico, A. (1997). Missed opportunities: A look at disadvantaged
college aspirants. Boston: Education Resource Institute.

Volle and Federico examined three factors that significantly influence college access, persistence, and degree attainment of some first-generation and divorced students on welfare. Although students in these subgroups face barriers unique to each subgroup, financial and academic limitations hinder degree attainment across subgroups. The authors recommend investing in early intervention and precollege programs, increasing availability of college awareness information, increasing availability of support services, promoting greater consistency and clarity in financial aid policies regarding parental contributions to college, and lessening restrictions prohibiting welfare recipients from participating in college.

Wallace, D., Abel, R., & Ropers-Huilman, B. (2000). Clearing a path for success:
Deconstructing borders through undergraduate mentoring. Review of
Educational Research, 24(1), 87–102.

The researchers use qualitative research methodology to examine the effectiveness of formal mentoring programs for high-risk undergraduates at a southern comprehensive, four-year regional university. Formal mentoring was defined as a deliberate matching of university personnel with high-risk students, a group that may include nonwhite, female, low-income, physically challenged, and first-generation college students. Study findings indicate that formal mentoring appeared to positively affect student participation, retention, and success in college. Students who had been involved with student support services, Veterans Upward Bound, and the educational opportunity center reported commitment to continuing their education as a result of support personnels’ counseling, tutoring, and guidance.